It is not a secret that textbooks nowadays play a crucial role in most schools and educational institutions, as they are intended to serve as facilitators in the process of teaching and learning. As a matter of fact, in relation to EFL contexts such as in Chile –where students seldom have access to meaningful and contextualized opportunities for interaction,– the significance of having these textbooks increases even more, to the extent of becoming almost vital for the development of the lessons. Besides, due to the great influence of the Communicate Language Teaching approach (CLT) in the Chilean curriculum, the majority of the materials implemented in EFL classrooms attempt to involve students in the process of learning through the use of several types of activities and tasks whose aim is to encourage interaction and communication in more meaningful and dynamic ways.
Nonetheless, it is important to bear in mind that English textbooks –just as any other textbook– are far from being flawless materials, as sometimes their components might not be as aligned as they should with the requirements of the curriculum or the environment in which the class takes place. For this reason, it is esencial for teachers to be willing to analyze and explore them consistently and critically, in order to know and be aware of their purposes, contents, task types, layouts, designs, and many other key elements that can affect either positively or negatively to the classroom.
Having said that, the purpose of this paper is to evaluate and compare two English textbooks that were potential alternatives for Chilean schools. These are English 8° Básico (2010) and Travelers for 8th grade students (2012). It is worth mentioning that the reasons for selecting these books is mainly because of the similarities found in their contents and units. In this opportunity the units to be compared and contrasted are: Contributions to the world and Different People; Different Lives, respectively. Both segments make emphasis on the impact that certain events and famous historical characters had –and have had– in society and culture. In addition, though we understand that these textbooks are not as updated as they could be, we took the decision of using them for the sake of analysis, and because it is interesting to picture whether these old books –once highly employed in schools– would continue to be suitable in today's Chilean contexts or not.
Throughout the following analysis, there will be an emphasis on the strengths and weaknesses that both textbooks present, and, subsequently, it will be concluded based on the data retrieved which of them would be more acceptable for the current Chilean EFL classrooms.
Contextualization and Theoretical Underpinnings:
According to MINEDUC (2018), as 8th grade students are going through the process of adolescence, they are required to develop skills to reinforce their critical thinking, ability to express their opinion, faculty of feeling empathy, among other aspects. Besides, these learners are in a stage in which they should be able to monitor and self-regulate their learning process and performances, since this will facilitate important factors such as autonomy, self-control and metacognition. Textbooks, therefore, should appeal to the nature of these type of learners, offering opportunities to adopt a formal mindset that permits them draw logic relations, critical thoughts, and a thorough understanding of abstract concepts and complex contemporary issues. In this sense, English serves as a "bridge" that connects these requirements, since language allows users to express interests, values, and beliefs, and to analyse and solve problems.
Based on this, it is not difficult to figure out that Chilean schools are required to work under the perspective of the CLT approach, as it considers English as a means of communication and an interaction tool rather than a mere list of grammatical contents. According to Richard and Rodgers (2001), communicative competence is "the goal of language teaching" (p.13). This means that the message and its meaning are the main factors to consider in the EFL classroom. Brown (2011) refers to these practices as "meaningful learning" and considers it a principle for teaching English, since it will "lead towards better long-term retention than rote learning."
Along the same lines, Goodman (1986), stressed that the four language skills (listening, speaking, writing and reading) should be kept as a whole instead of teaching each one separately. He promoted that these skills should be incorporated into everything students do throughout the day. This makes sense if we think about the perspective of MINEDUC (2018), which comprises that language is part of everyday life in the real world; therefore, it would be meaningless not to consider this in a classroom. Nunan (2004) claims that language acquisition is achieved as a product of environments that promote social interactions based on circumstances whose objective is to communicate information, using the language in meaningful ways so as to develop or solve challenging tasks. These "tasks" are often referred as "communicative tasks", and they are defined as "an activity that represents situations that are similar to real life scenarios" (MINEDUC, 2018). In basic terms, this means that students are required to understand, interact and produce in the target language, focusing more on meaning than on grammar.
Nonetheless, it is relevant to highlight that, for achieving this communicative environment, there is an inevitable need for scaffolding the process of learning. According to Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), scaffolding is a metaphoric term that describes the nature of "tutoring" in language acquisition. In other words, teachers –hand-in-hand with textbooks–should offer students the possibility to learn the contents in a significant, guided and gradual way. In the educational context, Maybin, Mercer and Steirer (1992) explain that scaffolding describes the temporary assistance that educators give to students, in order for them to complete tasks and develop new understandings, so that they will later be able to work autonomously.
This ability to work autonomously, however, depends on many other factors, and, in specific connection to textbooks, there is another important aspect that can be fundamental for the students' motivation to work alone. This is their design and layout. Miller and Berry (1962) explain that textbooks can highly reinforce the learning process of the students through the way they are organized and illustrated. Under this same perspective, Neill (1982) acknowledges that, though the contents are undoubtedly essential, the organization and design are no less important. For example, including features such as graphics, pictures, glossaries, advice boxes, or even blank spaces can be greatly beneficial to the students' development.
Finally, in relation to the units selected for this analysis, our reference point is based on a very similar and current unit called "Countries, culture, and customs". According to MINEDUC (2018), in this unit, 8th grade students are expected to raise interest towards other countries and places, understanding their customs and traditions. It is stated that, by the end of this unit, learners will be able to expand their vocabulary related to the topic and express themselves, making comparisons and descriptions. Besides, they will recognize the importance and relevance that English has as a tool for understanding, appreciating, and enjoying other cultures.
Analysis:
Considering all the elements raised by MINEDUC (2018) and the conceptions of the CLT approach, the following analysis will be carried out considering the following guiding questions:
After an extensive analysis of the unit "Contributions to the world", some important strengths and weaknesses were drawn up from this textbook:
1. This textbooks portrays the learning objectives in a first-person modality, which is really useful for the students as it permits them to feel more related to the abilities and the skills they are supposed to develop or perform. However, there are some of them that appear to be quite ambiguous and unclear, as they do not provide any specific or meaningful information for the students to understand what they refer to. A straightforward example is: "I will be able to show I understand a text by saying some words." The text does not provide any specific description to understand what those "words" are, and thus it fails with the quality of being precise, since it can cause confusion in the students. In relation to the Chilean curriculum, the textbook fails in addressing most of the required skills, although this might be due to the constant ambiguity of the statements.
2. There is a constant presence of communicative activities that intend to provoke meaningful interactions among the students. Figure 1 is only an example of many group discussions proposed by the textbook. However, the book barely offers examples or formulaic expressions to guide the discussions. In fact, it only presents the instructions and the students are expected to know exactly what to do and how to do it. This lack of language in use can result very dangerous for students, since they do not have a basis to rely on.
The unit analyzed in Travelers for 8th Grade Students is fairly similar to the previously examined unit from English 8° Básico. In this case, it is called "Different People. Different Lives", and these are the results obtained:
1. The objectives in this textbook focus more on the skills the students are going to use rather than on what they are going to be able to do at the end. The abilities are shown in a chart that separates them per language skill. And, in connection to the requirements present in the Chilean curriculum, this book fulfills them satisfactorily. For example: in the speaking section, it is stated that students will "exchange information and express opinions", and in relation to writing, it states that students will "compare" different places, "describe" some celebrations, and "use vocabulary" related to the unit. All these are mentioned in the curriculum (See Figure A). In addition, the textbook also has sections with attitudinal objectives that depict the importance of respecting others, valuing multicultural differences, among other values and principles.
2. In relation to communicative activities in this book, there are certainly many of them, varying from group work to pair work. What is really positive about this textbook is that activities are most of the time accompanied by meaningful examples that model what the students have to do (See Figure B). In addition, the book also provides colorful boxes with useful vocabulary to help the students during their performances. The fact that this textbook does not provide too much freedom to students makes it really reliable, as the possibilities for confusion are lowered significantly. Finally, though instructions tend to be somewhat long, they do not interfere in the understanding of the activities as they use basic and understandable vocabulary.
3. Most of reading and listening activities include pre-, while-, and post- listening activities. The book uses big pictures alongside questions that intend to make the students reflect, remember, relate, infer, among other things (often in pairs or groups). Scaffolding can be identified throughout the whole unit in multiple ways: advice boxes, vocabulary, tips, suggested strategies, etc (See Figure C)
4. As seen in the previous image (Figure C), the book has some boxes with useful tips for the students to apply strategies in order to do better in the activities. The textbook describes the abilities that the students need to use, and also gives interesting facts in boxes called "Did you know that..." (See Figure D), which are quite helpful to keep learners engaged and interested with the topics. Through the use of these boxes, the book ensures to guide the learning process at almost all times. In terms of vocabulary, the textbook constantly provides boxes called "pictionary" in which words are shown alongside respective images that represents them. Of this way, this textbook appeals to differentiated classrooms, in which students need multiple ways of representation to perceive the information in better ways.
5. The textbook incorporates a "self-evaluation"chart at the end of every unit, in which the students can reflect on their learning processes according to a specific language skill. The book invites the student to select from a list of skills which ones were more difficult (weaknesses) and which ones were easier (strengths) for them. A negative aspect about this activity is that students are required to answer "why" they think they are good -or bad- at a respective skill. As there are 14 statements, it might not be the best idea to ask such complex question, because there is a possibility of losing the focus of reflection due to the difficulty of language (See Figure E).
6. The textbook's design is very appealing to the audience. It presents a wide array of images of different sizes depending on their purpose. It includes many colorful advice boxes to help the learner, and the distribution of the text is not likely to overwhelm the reader, as there are many blank spaces and long texts are distant to each other. In addition, the book also includes a whole page to introduce the given unit.
7. Finally, in relation to the contextualization, the book mentions Chile very few times, which means that there are limited opportunities for the students to establish meaningful connections with their own environment. It is possible that the nature of the unit does not allow this to happen; however, and, as mentioned in the previous analysis, making reference to Chile can comprise huge opportunities for comparing and contrasting local and foreign cultures.
Conclusion
According to Ortúzar (2014), effective textbooks are the ones that adapt to the classroom and provide a significant introduction to the contents of the subject. Besides, they must offer an instructional sequence based on the curriculum. The information provided in them should be delivered in an organized, illustrated and complemented way in order to accomplish their pedagogical purpose effectively. Based on this, it can be understood that textbooks give a more concrete view of the curriculum and help to the students in the process or learning and also to the teacher in the making of lessons. In addition, they should also provide alternatives for the students to study independently if necessary.
Having said that, the most suitable textbook for the today's Chilean classroom would definitely be Travelers for 8th grade students, since this book demonstrated to have many more positive factors that contribute consistently to the learners' development. The learning objectives are much more precise, facilitating the notion of what is going to be learned and what skills are needed through the unit. It scaffolds the learning process constantly, offers support to the students, encourage self-assessment and reflections, and organize the information in clear and creative ways that do not overwhelm the student. However, as a suggestion, it would be recommendable to establish more connections with the culture and context of Chilean students, so as to generate more opportunities to create meaningful activities that all of them can relate with.
Apart from the lack of contextualization, it is quite surprising how this book -provided the fact that it is 6 years old- did not fail to maintain itself valid and reliable in relation to the current requirements of the curriculum and society.
In relation to the Feedback: Click here to see the changes.
References:
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language.
Goodman, K. (1986). What’s whole in whole language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Maybin, J., Mercer, N., & Steirer, B. (1992). ‘Scaffolding’ learning in the classroom. In K. Norman (Ed.), Thinking voices: The work of the National Curriculum Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton for the National Curriculum Council, London.
Miller, W.R. & Berry, R.H. (1962). Adopting the right textbook. Clearing House.
MINEDUC (2018). Planes y Programas. Programa de Estudio Octavo Básico. Santiago de Chile.
Neill, R. O. (1982). Why use textbooks? ELT Journal.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ortúzar, P. (2014). Calidad, formato y mercado de los textos escolares en Chile. Instituto de estudios de la sociedad.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Participation:
Alexis Inostroza: 100%
Throughout the following analysis, there will be an emphasis on the strengths and weaknesses that both textbooks present, and, subsequently, it will be concluded based on the data retrieved which of them would be more acceptable for the current Chilean EFL classrooms.
Contextualization and Theoretical Underpinnings:
According to MINEDUC (2018), as 8th grade students are going through the process of adolescence, they are required to develop skills to reinforce their critical thinking, ability to express their opinion, faculty of feeling empathy, among other aspects. Besides, these learners are in a stage in which they should be able to monitor and self-regulate their learning process and performances, since this will facilitate important factors such as autonomy, self-control and metacognition. Textbooks, therefore, should appeal to the nature of these type of learners, offering opportunities to adopt a formal mindset that permits them draw logic relations, critical thoughts, and a thorough understanding of abstract concepts and complex contemporary issues. In this sense, English serves as a "bridge" that connects these requirements, since language allows users to express interests, values, and beliefs, and to analyse and solve problems.
Based on this, it is not difficult to figure out that Chilean schools are required to work under the perspective of the CLT approach, as it considers English as a means of communication and an interaction tool rather than a mere list of grammatical contents. According to Richard and Rodgers (2001), communicative competence is "the goal of language teaching" (p.13). This means that the message and its meaning are the main factors to consider in the EFL classroom. Brown (2011) refers to these practices as "meaningful learning" and considers it a principle for teaching English, since it will "lead towards better long-term retention than rote learning."
Along the same lines, Goodman (1986), stressed that the four language skills (listening, speaking, writing and reading) should be kept as a whole instead of teaching each one separately. He promoted that these skills should be incorporated into everything students do throughout the day. This makes sense if we think about the perspective of MINEDUC (2018), which comprises that language is part of everyday life in the real world; therefore, it would be meaningless not to consider this in a classroom. Nunan (2004) claims that language acquisition is achieved as a product of environments that promote social interactions based on circumstances whose objective is to communicate information, using the language in meaningful ways so as to develop or solve challenging tasks. These "tasks" are often referred as "communicative tasks", and they are defined as "an activity that represents situations that are similar to real life scenarios" (MINEDUC, 2018). In basic terms, this means that students are required to understand, interact and produce in the target language, focusing more on meaning than on grammar.
Nonetheless, it is relevant to highlight that, for achieving this communicative environment, there is an inevitable need for scaffolding the process of learning. According to Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), scaffolding is a metaphoric term that describes the nature of "tutoring" in language acquisition. In other words, teachers –hand-in-hand with textbooks–should offer students the possibility to learn the contents in a significant, guided and gradual way. In the educational context, Maybin, Mercer and Steirer (1992) explain that scaffolding describes the temporary assistance that educators give to students, in order for them to complete tasks and develop new understandings, so that they will later be able to work autonomously.
This ability to work autonomously, however, depends on many other factors, and, in specific connection to textbooks, there is another important aspect that can be fundamental for the students' motivation to work alone. This is their design and layout. Miller and Berry (1962) explain that textbooks can highly reinforce the learning process of the students through the way they are organized and illustrated. Under this same perspective, Neill (1982) acknowledges that, though the contents are undoubtedly essential, the organization and design are no less important. For example, including features such as graphics, pictures, glossaries, advice boxes, or even blank spaces can be greatly beneficial to the students' development.
Finally, in relation to the units selected for this analysis, our reference point is based on a very similar and current unit called "Countries, culture, and customs". According to MINEDUC (2018), in this unit, 8th grade students are expected to raise interest towards other countries and places, understanding their customs and traditions. It is stated that, by the end of this unit, learners will be able to expand their vocabulary related to the topic and express themselves, making comparisons and descriptions. Besides, they will recognize the importance and relevance that English has as a tool for understanding, appreciating, and enjoying other cultures.
Analysis:
Considering all the elements raised by MINEDUC (2018) and the conceptions of the CLT approach, the following analysis will be carried out considering the following guiding questions:
- Does the textbook include clear and precise learning objectives? Are they aligned with the requirements of the Chilean curriculum?
- Does the textbook provide meaningful and communicative activities?
- Does the textbook promote a procedural learning? Scaffolding?
- Does the textbook offer support to the student? advice boxes? guided learning?
- Does the textbook incorporate opportunities for self-assessment? metacognition?
- Is the textbook's design and layout reader-friendly?
- Are the contents related to the reality of the students? Is the Chilean context addressed?
1. This textbooks portrays the learning objectives in a first-person modality, which is really useful for the students as it permits them to feel more related to the abilities and the skills they are supposed to develop or perform. However, there are some of them that appear to be quite ambiguous and unclear, as they do not provide any specific or meaningful information for the students to understand what they refer to. A straightforward example is: "I will be able to show I understand a text by saying some words." The text does not provide any specific description to understand what those "words" are, and thus it fails with the quality of being precise, since it can cause confusion in the students. In relation to the Chilean curriculum, the textbook fails in addressing most of the required skills, although this might be due to the constant ambiguity of the statements.
2. There is a constant presence of communicative activities that intend to provoke meaningful interactions among the students. Figure 1 is only an example of many group discussions proposed by the textbook. However, the book barely offers examples or formulaic expressions to guide the discussions. In fact, it only presents the instructions and the students are expected to know exactly what to do and how to do it. This lack of language in use can result very dangerous for students, since they do not have a basis to rely on.
 |
| Figure 1 |
3. The textbook provides reading and listening activities with pre-, while-, and post- segments, which foster learning as a process and scaffolding. Besides, "pre-" sections contribute to the activation of prior knowledge, encourage inferences, and help students organizing their ideas. These types of activities are quite positive, as they keep students engaged and motivate them for what comes afterwards (See Figure 2). However, there is very little focus on building up basic elements such as vocabulary. These activities succeed in engaging but fail in providing the necessary tools required to fully understand the respective listening or reading task.
 |
| Figure 2 |
4. The textbook also provides the students with meaningful, friendly advice boxes in order to help them perform better in their tasks and improve their strategies (See Figure 3).
 |
| Figure 3 |
5. Besides, this book offers the students opportunities for self-assessment, and not only in terms of performance in the target language, but also in terms of learning strategies (which can be useful for any subject). The textbook contain a brief survey with statements that promote metacognitive reflections. Besides, what is really special about this section is that it is divided into two reflective settings: intrapersonal and interpersonal. The first one grants the student space for a more personal an intrinsic reflection, meanwhile the second one seeks to verbalize those reflections in order to make them even more meaningful. Besides, the survey is composed mostly by "yes and no" questions, which diverts the focus towards mainly metacognition rather than language (See Figure 4).
 |
| Figure 4 |
6. One of the biggest weaknesses from this book has relation with its overall design and layout. First, there is no clear difference made for the beginning or ending of the units. There are no cover pages, nor introductions that summarize the information related to the topics that are to be seen. This is clearly a disadvantage, since the sense of organization is completely lost and, as a result, there is a constant presence of excessive text. In relation to the latter, most of the images and pictures in the textbook are really small, which leads to the layout to look unfriendly for the reader, as there is very little space for the user to have a "break". Continuing with the issue of the images, these are not as linked to the learning process as they should; images are used to create context for the topics; however, in the case of vocabulary, there is an important lack of visual support. This situation certainly deprives students with different intelligences or learning styles.
7. Finally, in terms of contextualization, the book does very little for providing students with meaningful connections to Chilean culture. This is quite unfortunate given the fact that the unit is about culture, and the possibility of comparing and contrasting Chilean country with others is totally lost. Besides, understanding one's culture is an excellent starting point before exploring others'.
"Travelers for 8th Grade Students" by Lina Alvarado Jantus (2012):
1. The objectives in this textbook focus more on the skills the students are going to use rather than on what they are going to be able to do at the end. The abilities are shown in a chart that separates them per language skill. And, in connection to the requirements present in the Chilean curriculum, this book fulfills them satisfactorily. For example: in the speaking section, it is stated that students will "exchange information and express opinions", and in relation to writing, it states that students will "compare" different places, "describe" some celebrations, and "use vocabulary" related to the unit. All these are mentioned in the curriculum (See Figure A). In addition, the textbook also has sections with attitudinal objectives that depict the importance of respecting others, valuing multicultural differences, among other values and principles.
 |
| Figure A |
2. In relation to communicative activities in this book, there are certainly many of them, varying from group work to pair work. What is really positive about this textbook is that activities are most of the time accompanied by meaningful examples that model what the students have to do (See Figure B). In addition, the book also provides colorful boxes with useful vocabulary to help the students during their performances. The fact that this textbook does not provide too much freedom to students makes it really reliable, as the possibilities for confusion are lowered significantly. Finally, though instructions tend to be somewhat long, they do not interfere in the understanding of the activities as they use basic and understandable vocabulary.
 |
| Figure B |
3. Most of reading and listening activities include pre-, while-, and post- listening activities. The book uses big pictures alongside questions that intend to make the students reflect, remember, relate, infer, among other things (often in pairs or groups). Scaffolding can be identified throughout the whole unit in multiple ways: advice boxes, vocabulary, tips, suggested strategies, etc (See Figure C)
 |
| Figure C |
4. As seen in the previous image (Figure C), the book has some boxes with useful tips for the students to apply strategies in order to do better in the activities. The textbook describes the abilities that the students need to use, and also gives interesting facts in boxes called "Did you know that..." (See Figure D), which are quite helpful to keep learners engaged and interested with the topics. Through the use of these boxes, the book ensures to guide the learning process at almost all times. In terms of vocabulary, the textbook constantly provides boxes called "pictionary" in which words are shown alongside respective images that represents them. Of this way, this textbook appeals to differentiated classrooms, in which students need multiple ways of representation to perceive the information in better ways.
 |
| Figure D |
5. The textbook incorporates a "self-evaluation"chart at the end of every unit, in which the students can reflect on their learning processes according to a specific language skill. The book invites the student to select from a list of skills which ones were more difficult (weaknesses) and which ones were easier (strengths) for them. A negative aspect about this activity is that students are required to answer "why" they think they are good -or bad- at a respective skill. As there are 14 statements, it might not be the best idea to ask such complex question, because there is a possibility of losing the focus of reflection due to the difficulty of language (See Figure E).
 |
| Figure E |
6. The textbook's design is very appealing to the audience. It presents a wide array of images of different sizes depending on their purpose. It includes many colorful advice boxes to help the learner, and the distribution of the text is not likely to overwhelm the reader, as there are many blank spaces and long texts are distant to each other. In addition, the book also includes a whole page to introduce the given unit.
7. Finally, in relation to the contextualization, the book mentions Chile very few times, which means that there are limited opportunities for the students to establish meaningful connections with their own environment. It is possible that the nature of the unit does not allow this to happen; however, and, as mentioned in the previous analysis, making reference to Chile can comprise huge opportunities for comparing and contrasting local and foreign cultures.
Conclusion
According to Ortúzar (2014), effective textbooks are the ones that adapt to the classroom and provide a significant introduction to the contents of the subject. Besides, they must offer an instructional sequence based on the curriculum. The information provided in them should be delivered in an organized, illustrated and complemented way in order to accomplish their pedagogical purpose effectively. Based on this, it can be understood that textbooks give a more concrete view of the curriculum and help to the students in the process or learning and also to the teacher in the making of lessons. In addition, they should also provide alternatives for the students to study independently if necessary.
Having said that, the most suitable textbook for the today's Chilean classroom would definitely be Travelers for 8th grade students, since this book demonstrated to have many more positive factors that contribute consistently to the learners' development. The learning objectives are much more precise, facilitating the notion of what is going to be learned and what skills are needed through the unit. It scaffolds the learning process constantly, offers support to the students, encourage self-assessment and reflections, and organize the information in clear and creative ways that do not overwhelm the student. However, as a suggestion, it would be recommendable to establish more connections with the culture and context of Chilean students, so as to generate more opportunities to create meaningful activities that all of them can relate with.
Apart from the lack of contextualization, it is quite surprising how this book -provided the fact that it is 6 years old- did not fail to maintain itself valid and reliable in relation to the current requirements of the curriculum and society.
In relation to the Feedback: Click here to see the changes.
References:
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language.
Goodman, K. (1986). What’s whole in whole language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Maybin, J., Mercer, N., & Steirer, B. (1992). ‘Scaffolding’ learning in the classroom. In K. Norman (Ed.), Thinking voices: The work of the National Curriculum Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton for the National Curriculum Council, London.
Miller, W.R. & Berry, R.H. (1962). Adopting the right textbook. Clearing House.
MINEDUC (2018). Planes y Programas. Programa de Estudio Octavo Básico. Santiago de Chile.
Neill, R. O. (1982). Why use textbooks? ELT Journal.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ortúzar, P. (2014). Calidad, formato y mercado de los textos escolares en Chile. Instituto de estudios de la sociedad.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Participation:
Alexis Inostroza: 100%
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